How setting clarifies the theme in “Macbeth” Essay

In the play The Tragedy of Macbeth by William Shakespeare, the setting explains the different topics and characters of the play. Obscurity, misleading appearances, and the heavenly are parts of setting that impact the characters activities and lives. The play shows that a situation is a urgent part of one’s life. Contingent upon where they live, one’s environmental factors influence their responses and choices. The play starts it’s setting on a dim, bleak front line where war is all together. This setting explains the ‘darkness is proportional to evil’ topic, and Macbeth’s malicious attitude since it shows that Scotland is in a condition of turmoil. This setting brings dimness upon the whole nation, and Macbeth’s activities too. Furthermore, as the setting becomes darker, Macbeth’s devilishness creates close by. With the exception of Macbeth’s, all killings in the play happen around evening time. Macbeth needed ‘stars stow away your fires’ so he could execute Duncan without paradise seeing what he was doing. This clearly, is a case of men’s attitude as they go into war. Indeed, even Duncan’s prepared ponies appear as though they are going to, â€Å"Make war with mankind,† (2.4.18) by going wild and breaking out of their slows down the evening of his passing. This shows the dim and warlike setting impacts even the creatures in Shakespeare’s play. Furthermore, manors in the Shakespearian timeframe were deluding in appearance. They are viewed as heavenly structures that were lovely, tranquil, and everything except for cold and stinking of excrement. Such a setting is Macbeth’s palace; it’s deluding appearance explains the misdirecting activities of the characters that occupy it. The ruler, as Macbeth’s visitor, is first to be hoodwinked by the manor. â€Å"This stronghold hath a wonderful seat; the air deftly and pleasantly suggests itself unto our delicate senses.† (1.6.1-3) This shows the ruler is satisfied with the setting. The castle’s misleading quality likewise explains Lady Macbeth’s attitude. â€Å"To dumbfound the time, resemble the time.† (1.5.61-62) Lady Macbeth persuades Macbeth to delude the individuals by wearing a bogus face and concealing the offensiveness behind his considerations, similar to his deceptive manor. Moreover she deludes her own better half by persuading him into murdering the ruler. â€Å"Wouldst thou/live a quitter in thine own esteem?† (1.7.44-45) Macbeth questioned murder the ruler and this explains Lady Macbeth sold out him. Like a stronghold is misdirecting in appearance, the inhibitors of Macbeth’s château hoodwink their visitor and one another. In conclusion, the play fuses an otherworldly subject. The fundamental setting that utilizes this subject is The Birnam Wood’s. Macbeth was told by ghosts from the witches that, â€Å"Macbeth will never vanquished be until Great Birnam Wood to high Dunsinane Hill will come against him.† (4.1.93-94) This setting impacts Macbeth into accepting he is invulnerable, which eventually drives him to his pulverization. â€Å"Who can dazzle the woodland, offer the tree unfix his earth-bound root? Sweet bodements, good!† (4.1.95-96) This shows the All in all, The Tragedy of Macbeth by William Shakespeare explains the different topics and characters of the play with its broad utilization of setting. Dimness, deluding appearances, and the extraordinary are parts of setting that impact the characters activities and lives. The play shows that a setting is an essential part of one’s life. Contingent upon where they live, one’s responses and choices might be explained and disentangled by their environmental factors.

Decision Analysis in Strategic Management

Choice Analysis in Strategic Management Presentation Organizational administration requires balanced dynamic procedures. Especially, this is increasingly obvious inside the present serious business condition. There are a few approachs relevant in the examination of business choices. Characteristically, the choices assume critical jobs in the improvement of an association (Hodgkinson Starbuck 2008, p. 56).Advertising We will compose a custom report test on Decision Analysis in Strategic Management explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More They additionally impact the government assistance all things considered. The partners may incorporate the clients and interior representatives. The administration has the duty of settling on balanced choices. By and by, there is an expansion in the participatory models. The profoundly changed society adds to these striking changes. There are authoritative choices that may identify with clients and workers. Then again, these choices may apply to the procedures of authoritative asset the executives. These choices structure basic areas in key administration forms (Shapira 2002, p. 23). This report centers around the investigation of the results of key authoritative choices. In accomplishing this goal, the report inspects three significant points of view. These are material in dynamic procedures. These incorporate the advanced, representative interpretive and the postmodern points of view. There is a prominent authoritative choice identifying with the development of significant business tasks. Pioneer Analysis There are basic choices associated with the extension of hierarchical procedures. A use of innovator standard in the investigation of these choices is suitable. Premier, it is indispensable to look at the importance of the innovator standard for dynamic. Prominently, the pioneer standard inserts in the idea of illumination. As indicated by this hypothetical contention, progress roots from guideline exact information (Monahan 2000, p. 23). Aside from t his, a methodology of levelheadedness process stays fitting. There are remarkable regions of the general innovator guideline. There is a general frameworks model. This model hypothesizes that the clarifications on experimental or social event may base on frameworks. Especially, this identifies with the frameworks administered through guidelines and structures. Aside from this, there is a socio-specialized frameworks model. Essentially, this model applies to the human conduct. Possibility hypothesis is the last explanative model in the innovator concept.Advertising Looking for report on business financial aspects? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Evidently, numerous directors apply this idea during emergency the executives circumstances. The idea specifies that there is no any best strategy to arrange (Bubnicki 2003, p. 34). In any case, as per this idea, the most pertinent approach relies upon the specific situation. The cho ices made inside associations are basic. This is on the grounds that these choices may influence the social, political and mechanical components. There may be other huge ramifications inside various fields. An utilization of the pioneer standard in the investigation of these suggestions is crucial. A firm’s choice to grow its activities may have noteworthy ramifications on the general condition. In particular, these might incorporate both the interior and the outer conditions. In the first place, the association must think about the accessibility of the fitting assets. Assets may incorporate budgetary, HR and other appropriate empowering factors. The possibility hypothesis might be material in assessing the conceivable outcomes of connecting with various accessible assets (Shapira 2002, p. 89). As indicated by this guideline, the association doesn't have to battle to create inaccessible assets. Or maybe, the potential advancements must happen according to the pertinent settin g. This guideline accept the utilization of arranging and sound planning. Preferably, the results of these suppositions may be hindering to the association. For example, it may do not have the necessary assets to compensate every one of its laborers. Aside from this, it may likewise do not have the ability to continue the greater part of its business or authoritative activities. The use of general frameworks model may portray significant disclosures. This is on the grounds that the framework depends on the regard for guidelines (Shapira 2002, p. 90). As per this hypothetical view, it is critical to perceive the significance of drafting approaches and structures. These must direct authoritative activities. Extension procedures may influence the outer situations. Characteristically, there is an inclination to watch the pertinent arrangements material in the business condition. There are a few significant guidelines that countercheck the tasks inside the business condition. These may i dentify with charge arrangements, business guidelines, advertise activities and other significant perspectives (Thomas 2012, p. 139). Government and other private organizations take an interest in the foundation of these arrangements. Furthermore, they likewise screen their execution and compliance.Advertising We will compose a custom report test on Decision Analysis in Strategic Management explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is imperative to take note of that there are guidelines that identify with the inward and outer tasks. Inside activities are appropriate to authoritative techniques and practices. Then again, the outside guidelines concern the issues of open arrangement and administration. It is critical to conform to all the applicable outer guidelines. These structures may diagram procedures and rules suitable for business venture and activities. The consistence assists with maintaining a strategic distance from future instances of discouragement and pre ventions inside business tasks. It additionally guarantees the legitimateness of all business activities. Through perception of legitimate strategies, the essential human qualifications and freedoms must have thought. In this regard, the key freedoms of the human asset or work force inside the associations are esteemed. There are prominent positive impacts from this perception. These incorporate positive perform and worker government assistance. Key administration supports the definition of transformational approaches inside associations. These are significant in light of the fact that they control the activities of the association. This is toward the compelling achievement of aggregate hierarchical objectives. Along these lines, the use of the rule stays fitting. Business associations can't work inside unlawful settings. This is pertinent inside the general condition and social structure. The lawful condition requires most extreme application and perception. The general frameworks hypothesis applies to the perception of all the inward and outside rules. Notwithstanding, the exhaustive perception of this standard may likewise cause negative impacts. The business associations may confront remarkable delimitations in the effective foundation of new pursuits. Especially, this might be because of administrative limitations on significant elements. These might remember limitations for asset assignment, degree of business tasks and worker commitment (Monahan 2000, p. 73). Business associations portray propensities to dodge adherence to severe guidelines. Thusly, the results of perception of these approaches bear both negative and useful impacts. The socio-specialized frameworks explanative model is pertinent in the examination of this choice. The explanative model specifies the hugeness of watching human behavior.Advertising Searching for report on business financial aspects? We should check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Find out More A satisfactory perception of human conduct is significant in creating sane choices. This is on the grounds that the outcomes of these choices for the most part influence people. For example, the representatives are interior partners that are probably going to pick up or experience the ill effects of the results (Bubnicki 2003, p. 60). Other outside partners should likewise acknowledge full commitment in these choice procedures. Noticeably, no business associations can work without in regards to the necessities of every one of its partners. This idea is material both to the inner and outer partners. The association must think about the commitment of the conduct and sentiments of partners. Primarily, this applies to the foundation and improvement of new tasks. This procedure is significant in a few different ways. The procedure empowers the effective evaluation of the competency of the laborers to commit their qualities and limits. This is suitable for the activity and achievement of t he new undertaking. Individuals structure basic parts of nature. This applies both to the social and business conditions. In this way, there is relative criticalness in the perception and examination of their conduct. The fundamental guideline is that human practices have noteworthy effects on the achievement of essential hierarchical choices (Shapira 2002, p. 97). In this way, the standard stays proper in the investigation of the outcomes of these choices. The innovator explanative model is significant for the investigation of the results of the choices to grow business associations. The extension forms inside business associations include the combination of various societies. Obviously, multicultural elements have noteworthy impacts in the achievement of business activities. So as to succeed, the use of socio-specialized frameworks hypothesis stays suitable. Scientifically, this procedure identifies with the comprehension and control of fundamental social elements. This is on the grounds that they

Common App College Essay Topics - Commonly Mistaken Student Essay Topics

Common App College Essay Topics - Commonly Mistaken Student Essay TopicsIt's not always easy choosing the best Common App College Essay topics, especially if you're just starting out. Sometimes it seems like every writer has a story to tell, but when you look closer, there is usually something wrong with it. Here are some common mistakes that students make, along with advice on how to avoid them.One of the biggest reasons why students get themselves into trouble is because they pick the wrong Common App College Essay Topics. For example, if you choose your topic too early in the semester, it can be hard to avoid problems later on down the road. So, make sure you know what you want to say before you choose your topics.Your Common App College Essay topics should have something to do with your personal experiences or feelings about the semester, especially if they're going to be written for your professor. Usually, you can write your own instead of relying on what the course instructor tells you to write. However, make sure you write a reasonable essay and not just an excuse for you to complain!One of the worst things you can do when writing your Common App College Essay topics is to write something out of turn. Even if you have an idea, don't just throw it out there. Making a mistake in the middle of your paper can be the difference between an A C.One of the biggest mistakes most students make is that they get their Common App College Essay topics written before they even know if they have to write one. You can't just get a topic written before you have to do a paper. So, think about the topic a week or two before you need to write it, so you'll have time to make sure you really have what you need.Another thing to watch out for when it comes to writing your Common App College Essay Topics is to make sure you keep the tone of your paper neutral. Although you're writing about something specific, it's important to keep it neutral. So, make sure you use terms like 's ociety'common people' without any emotional connotations. Keep your voice consistent throughout the paper and you will avoid any issues in the future.You should always use proper grammar when writing your Common App College Essay Topics. The only way to avoid having problems with grammar in this area is to make sure you practice. Make sure to ask others for help when you don't quite understand the rules, and always be punctual in completing the essay.If you follow these tips when writing your Common App College Essay Topics, you should have a much better time doing so. And, you will improve your grades and give yourself the chance to really shine. Good luck with your essays!

Analysis Of George Orwell s 1984 Essay - 2052 Words

Heavy oppression from a powerful government can be overwhelming and burdening. Citizens suffocate under the rules and regulations and are denied freedoms that should be entitled. When it comes down to this, there are many who prefer to not rock the boat, or do not even see the oppression happening. However, there are a selected few that fight the authority. George Orwell used his skillful techniques to create a dystopian novel that describes his nightmare vision of a possible future society. This work is remembered today to warn citizens to be conscious as to what is around us, what is controlling us, and where our hope should be. The novel, 1984, written by George Orwell has opened reader’s eyes on the power-hungry political systems forcing oppression, while rebelling against these governments in search of hope, love, freedom, and uses an impressive skill of timelessness in his writing to make a powerful impact still studied to this day. An omniscient power known as Big Brother rules over the province of Oceania. The word itself, Oceania, sounds promising and delightful. To the citizens, there is no other province; it is believed to be the best and only. This territory is broken into three classes: the Inner Party, Outer Party, and meaningless Proles. The small, ruling Inner Party has the others unknowingly brainwashed. They are programmed into following orders and rules with fear of consequence otherwise. The citizens even have an official language, newspeak, which theyShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of George Orwell s 1984848 Words   |  4 PagesCritical Analysis In the George Orwell’s novel 1984, much of the society is watched and have no privacy of any kind. Every person in the Party is under surveillance. In effect, these people cannot live freely and independently, but it seems to be an impossible task because of of the Party surveillance, and how they limit thinking and manipulate reality. We can similarly see these concerns and their effects in today s society and the ways the novel also acts as a warning for the future. In 1984 a manRead MoreAnalysis Of George Orwell s 19841423 Words   |  6 PagesIn the novel 1984 by George Orwell, the Party has many strategies and tactics that help them have complete control of the people of Oceania. The control the Party has maintained gives them the ability to manipulate people as a result. The Party takes away the people’s freedom to have a say in their government and become their own person. They use their power to an extreme against the people rather than to help the people. The Party takes advantage of every opportunity to instill fear in the citizensRead MoreAnalysis Of George Orwell s 1984 949 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"1984† is a story which takes place in what was then the future of England. The book illustrates a dystopian society in which a government figure named â€Å"Big Brother† rules above all. The country is surrounded by eyes so to speak, devices called â€Å"telescreens† are in houses and buildings to monitor wha t all of the citizens are doing via camera. Coupled with that is the existence of the â€Å"Thought Police† whose sole job is to monitor citizens from committing â€Å"thoughtcrime† which is essentially thinkingRead MoreAnalysis Of George Orwell s 1984 923 Words   |  4 Pages1984, is a book written by George Orwell giving the reader a view of what a dystopian government would be like. The government of Oceania controls the lives of it’s citizens; posters of a figure known as â€Å"Big Brother† are seen all over and emphasize that he is always watching it’s citizens. The government enforces rules and regulations amongst it’s citizens, restricting them from giving their own opinion or even opposing the government. Thoughtcrime, face crime, and double think are all strictlyRead MoreAnalysis Of George Orwell s 19841450 Words   |  6 PagesThose familiar with George Orwell’s â€Å"1984† will recall that â€Å"Newspeak was de signed not to extend but to diminish the range of thought.† I recently felt the weight of this Orwellian ethos when many of my students sent emails to inform me, and perhaps warn me, that my name appears on the Professor Watchlist, a new website created by a conservative youth group known as Turning Point USA. I could sense the gravity in those email messages, a sense of relaying what is to come. The Professor Watchlist’sRead MoreAnalysis Of George Orwell s 19841377 Words   |  6 Pagesvarious types of governments, such include democracy, oligarchy, and more specifically, totalitarian. A totalitarian government gains extensive amounts of control and power over all of their people, and dominate over every aspect of their lives. George Orwell’s â€Å"1984,† conveys to its readers how the government presented totalitarianism and obtained control over their citizens. This action by the government compares to the massacre of the Holocaust, which portrayed the act of totalitarianism by aiming discriminationRead MoreAnalysis Of George Orwell s 19841029 Words   |  5 Pages Imagine a world where everything you knew had to be forgotten, and you knew nothing more then what was being told to you. In George Orwell’s book 1984 this is exactly the case. Winston Smith, a m iddle aged man, lives a life already planned for him. Smith works at the Ministry of Truth rewriting the news and other articles to follow the teachings of Big Brother. Big Brother is the leader of Oceania, one of three world powers, and aims to rewrite the past to control the present. Oceania is separatedRead MoreAnalysis Of George Orwell s 1984 Essay1127 Words   |  5 Pagesfirst civilizations of mankind, yet it is difficult find one that is perfect even till today. George Orwell shows an example of this within 1984. 1984 was written based on what Orwell thought the government would be like in 1984. He used his personal knowledge and experience with the government to create his story. The setting of 1984 is set in a superstate where there is a totalitarian government. Within 1984 and the 21st century one major key stands out: corruption rules both governments. Trust isRead MoreAnalysis Of George Orwell s 19841026 Words   |  5 PagesIn 1984, by George Orwell violence contributed to the plot by having three stages of reintegration. The stages are to learn, understand, and to accept, Winston was forced to learn that 2+2=5 under torture, understanding that the party is good, and seeks power for its own. Winston accepts and understands the Party and Big Brother as soon as Winston wishes the burden of torture on someone else who he loves, and to learn that Big Brother is eternal and that 2+2=5, Winston then is committed and loyalRead MoreAnalysis Of George Orwell s 1984 1122 Words   |  5 Pagesfreedom. A growing debate concerning Orwell’s 1984 relevancy is quickly on the rise. Orwell’s fear of a totalitarian society led him to write this book as he lived during the totalitarian movement in Russia. The fear of a totalitarian society spreading sparked his fear and wrote this book to make people understand that it is not benef icial to society. I feel that with the the National Security Agency in the United States, the issue and relevancy of 1984 has never been higher. The public is discovering

The Spanish-American War - An Overview

Ugly The New Sexy, By Tanya Gonzalez - 2059 Words

Although Betty and some other characters in the show are regarded as ugly by stereotypically beautiful women, they seldom question the beauty standards and often choose to accept the situation, which shows their internalized sexism. In the first three seasons Betty remains the same body figure and clothing style, which is considered â€Å"ugly† by her colleagues. Though being optimistic and confident about her life, she admits her ugliness. Betty’s childhood memories are mostly negative because her classmates laughed at her appearance and made fun of her ugliness. Suffering from negative reactions from her peers, Betty accepts the mainstream beauty standards, admits that she is ugly, and frequently relates failure and her tragic past with her†¦show more content†¦Although Betty does attempt to challenge beauty stereotypes a few times in the show, the results are often unsatisfying and insignificant because of women’s internalized and externalized sexism. In the episode â€Å"Zero Worship†, Betty suggests Daniel to use more â€Å"healthy† models that are not overly skinny. Daniel accepts the suggestion and invites women from all ages, body shapes and sizes to be models for the fashion show. Although this seems like an attempt to challenge the one-dimensional beauty standard, the result is not significant at all. Betty only receives support from her boss Daniel, her family, and her nephew’s friend, Taylor. Moreover, Taylor does not express her applause in public. Instead, she sneaks out and talks to Betty secretly because she is afraid of letting her friends, who believe in mainstream beauty standards, know her thoughts. This scene implies the difficulties women face when challenging and refusing to accept externalized sexism, and insisting on their own belief of beauty. Internalized and externalized sexism trigger women’s beauty obsession and the show portrays the negative influence of beauty obsession. The food provided in Mode’s cafeteria and offices are usually sandwiches and salad. The workers seldom eat snacks, and they do not eat cheese or meat. Because of their beauty obsession, they cannot have a normal diet. In Debra Franko’s article â€Å"Considering J.Lo and Ugly Betty†, she researches the body

Language Essay Example For Students

Language Essay IntroductionTo awaken from the dream means recognizing the illusory nature of this constricted self concept and perception of the body and mind, not as a means as of gasping at the ephemeral pleasures of the world or as a prison enclosing the self, but as an instrument for learning and communicating in various languages. Before the MoveTwo months before moving to New York, my friend William, thought he would be kind enough to warn me about the vast culture of the, Big Apple. William begins by telling me that I would not be able to survive the cultural diversity and I would not be able to get a good paying job or housing because of my ethnicity. Well, was he very wrong. Since I commuted to and from New York three times, a week I decided to put in a transfer from the company I was employed with to work in their satellite office in New York. When speaking with Cindy, one of the customer service representatives already living and working in New York, I mentioned to her that I was relocating to the New York office but did not have a place to live. Immediately, Cindy who I did not meet at the time offered me full living quarters with all the amenities for a charge of $445.00 a month. Gleefully, I accepted without even looking at the place. Moving dayI had two oversized suitcases and my brother at my side, who kept telling me to, You can make it. Because I was somewhat familiar with my surroundings, it was no problem for me to jump on the E train from Manhattan to Queens, New York. It was not until my brother Jerry and I got to Jamaica Queens that Williams words replayed in my mind. You will not be able to survive the cultural diversity. There were so many people from different cultural background gathered in one place ranging from: Jamaican, Guyanese, Trinidadians, Indians, Hispanics, Caucasians, Blacks and Mexicans. They were shopping, walking, talking, waiting for the bus and catching the dollar vans, going to their different destinations. After I stood there for a moment (relieving myself of the shock), while almost getting knocked down, I called Cindy on my cell phone to let her know I had arrived at the arranged pick-up spot. Prior to that day, when speaking with Cindy, I never knew she masked her Trinidadian accent. I heard her loud in clear, when she said, Chile Ill be dere and what cha look like. I told her I was black, with golden blond wavy hair, tall, medium built, wearing blue jeans, brown penny loafers and an oxford shirt. Veil of IllusionWhen Cindy drove by four times in her red pathfinder looking for me, I laughed. I had to wave my company backpack so that she would be able to find me. She jumped out of her truck, ran over to me, hugging and touching my face as if she could not believe I was black. Quite naturally, I had to grab her hand to let her know, I am live and in living color. Cindy blurted out, I just knew you were white and no one at the company would give me a description of how you look, and they just told me wait and see. I was curious to know why Cindy responded to me they way she did. Therefore, I asked Cindy, What eluded her to think that I was not black. Sure enough, she told me, it was the way I spoke and how I pronounced and annunciated my words. It was at that moment when I began to realize the misconception people have when it comes to language and communication. A month after I settled in apartment at Cindys house, I went to go and meet William at the Puerto Rican Day Parade. I saw a few of my co-workers and they began speaking Spanish to me, Como su el fin de samana? Buena, habla manana por la manana en trabajo (How is your weekend, Good, speak with you tomorrow at work). William had this incredulous look of surprise on his face, because he never new that I spoke Spanish. Since when did not verbally express his surprise, I told him that I learned to speak Spanish when I was taking voice lesson. In addition, I refuse to limit my learning abilities to not understanding others. Persuasive Essay: "Defining Freedom As Found In The Theme(S) Of The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn"Brother John maintains, for instance, that he need not tell himself the words tape recorder, magnetic tape, red button on the left, turn, push and so forth . . . in order to be capable of properly operating a tape recorder. . . . (Roche Lecours and Joanette, p.20) The Deaf who lack Signa group whose numbers are diminishing today, thank goodnesslack Brother Johns specific language-mediated apprenticeships, but we simply dont knowyetwhat structures in their brains are indirect products of the language that most of their ancestors in recent millennia have shared. The evidence that Donald adduces for the powers of language-less thought is thus potentially misleading. These varieties of language-less thought, like barefoot waterskiing, may be possible only for brief periods, and only after a preparatory period that includes the very feature whose absence is later so striking. There are ind irect ways of testing the hypotheses implied by these doubts. Consider episodic memory, for instance. When a dog retrieves a bone it has buried, it manifests an effect on its memory, but must the dog, in retrieving the bone, actually recollect the episode of burying? (Perhaps you can name the current U. S. Secretary of State, but can you recall the occasion of learning his name?) The capacity for genuine episodic recollectingas opposed to semantic memory installed by a single episode of learningis in need of careful analysis and investigation. Donald follows Jane Goodall in claiming that chimpanzees in the wild are able to perceive social events accurately and to remember them (p.157)as episodes in memory. But we have not really been given any evidence from which this strong thesis follows; the social perspicuity of the chimpanzees might be largely due to specialized perceptual talents interacting with specialized signssuppose, for instance, that there is something subtle about the posture of a subordinate facing a superior that instantlyvisuallytells an observer chimp (but not an human observer) which is subordinate, and how much. Experiments that would demonstrate a genuine capacity for episodic memory in chimpanzees would have to involve circumstances in which a episode was observed or experienced, but in which its relevance as a premise for some social inference was not yet determinedso no inference could be drawn at once. If something that transpired later suddenly gave a retrospective relevance to the earlier episode, and if a chimpanzee can tumble to that fact, this would be evidencebut not yet conclusive evidenceof episodic memory. Another way of testing for episodic memory in the absence of language would be to let a chimpanzee observeoncea relatively novel and elaborate behavioral sequence that accomplishes some end (e.g., to make the door open, you stamp three times, turn in a circle and then push both buttons at once), and see if the chimpanzee, fa ced with the need to accomplish the same end, can even come close to reproducing the sequence. It is not that there is any doubt that chimpanzee brain tissue is capable of storing this much informationit can obviously store vastly more than is required for such a simple featbut whether the chimpanzee can exploit this storage medium in such an adaptive way on short notice. And that is the sort of question that no amount of microscopic brain-study is going to shed much light on. 7. The art of making mistakes: the next storyThis brings me to my final step up the Tower of Generate-and-Test. There is one more embodiment of this wonderful idea, and it is the one that gives our minds their greatest power: once we have languagea bountiful kit of mind-toolswe can use them in the structure of deliberate, foresightful generate-and-test known as science. All the other varieties of generate-and-test are willy-nilly. The soliloquy that accompanies the errors committed by the lowliest Skinnerian creature might be Well, I mustnt do that again! and the hardest lesson for any agent to learn, apparently, is how to learn from ones own mistakes. In order to learn from them, one has to be able to contemplate them, and this is no small matter. Life rushes on, and unless one has developed positive strategies for recording ones tracks, the task known in AI as credit assignment (also, known, of course, as blame assignment!) is insoluble. The advent of high-speed still photography was a revolutionary technological advance for science because it permitted human beings, for the first time, to examine complicated temporal phenomena not in real time, but in their own good timein leisurely, methodical backtracking analysis of the traces they had created of those complicated events. Here a technological advance carried in its wake a huge enhancement in cognitive power. The advent of language was an exactly parallel boon for human beings, a technology that created a whole new class of objects-to-contemplate, verbally embodied surrogates that could be reviewed in any order at any pace. And this opened up a new dimension of self-improvementall one had to do was to learn to savor ones own mistakes. But science is not just a matter of making mistakes, but of making mistakes in public. Making mistakes for all to see, in the hopes of getting the others to help with the corrections. It has been plausibly maintained, by Nicholas Humphrey, David Premack and others, that chimpanzees are natural psychologistswhat I would call second-order intentional systemsbut if they are, they nevertheless lack a crucial feature shared by all human natural psychologists, folk and professional varieties: they never get to compare notes. They never dispute over attributions, and ask for the grounds for each others conclusions. No wonder their comprehension is so limited. Ours would be, too, if we had to generate it all on our own. **Let me sum up the results of my rather swift and superficial survey. Our human brains, and only human brains, have been armed by habits and methods, mind-tools and information, drawn from millions of other brains to which we are not genetically related. This, amplified by t he deliberate use of generate-and-test in science, puts our minds on a different plane from the minds of our nearest relatives among the animals. This species-specific process of enhancement has become so swift and powerful that a single generation of its design improvements can now dwarf the R-and-D efforts of millions of years of evolution by natural selection. So while we cannot rule out the possibility in principle that our minds will be cognitively closed to some domain or other, no good naturalistic reason to believe this can be discovered in our animal origins. On the contrary, a proper application of Darwinian thinking suggests that if we survive our current self-induced environmental crises, our capacity to comprehend will continue to grow by increments that are now incomprehensible to us. Further ReadingRodney Brooks, 1991, Intelligence Without Representation, Artificial Intelligence Journal, 47, pp.139-59. William Calvin, 1990, The Ascent of Mind: Ice Age Climates and the Evolution of Intelligence, New York: BantamRichard Dawkins, 1976, The Selfish Gene, Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Daniel Dennett, The brain and its boundaries, review of McGinn, 1990, in TLS, May 10, 1991 (corrected by erratum notice on May 24, p29). Jared Diamond, 1992, The Third Chimpanzee: The Evolution and Future of the Human Animal, New York: HarperMerlin Donald, 1991, Origins of the Modern Mind: Three Stages in the Evolution of Culture and Cognition, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. PressRichard Gregory 1981, Mind in Science, Cambridge Univ. Press. Ray Jackendoff, 1987, Consciousness and the Computational Mind, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/A Bradford Book. Julian Jaynes, 1976, The Origins of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, Boston: Houghton MifflinFrank Keil, forthcoming, The Origins of an Autonomous Biology, in Minnesota Symposium, details forthcomingAlan Leslie, 1992, Pretense, Autism and the Theory-of-Mind Module, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1, pp.18-21. Colin McGinn, 1990, The Problem of Consciousness, Oxford: Blackwell. Allen Newell, 1990, Unifed Theories of Cognition, Harvard Univ. Press. Howard Margolis, 1987, Patterns, Thinking and Cognition, Univ. of Chicago Press. Andre Roche Lecours and Yves Joanette, Linguistic and Other Psychological Aspects of Praoxysmal Aphasia, Brain and Language, 10, pp.1-23, 1980. John Holland, Complex Adaptive Systems, Daedalus, Winter, 1992, p25. Nicholas Humphrey, 1986, The Inner Eye, London: Faber Faber. David Premack, 1986, Gavagai! Or the Future History of the Animal Language Controversy, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. B. F. Skinner, 1953, Science and Human Behavior, New Yorkl: MacMillan. Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson, 1986, Relevance: a Theory of Communication, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press. L. Wilsson, 1974, Observations and Experiments on the Ethology of the European Beaver, Viltrevy, Swedish Wildlife, 8, pp.115-266. Endnotes1. See the discussion of Steven Kosslyns concept of visual generativity and its relation to language, in Donald, 1991, pp.72-5. 2.This is an elaboration of ideas to be found in my Why the Law of Effect Will Not Go Away, 1974, Journal of the Theory of Social Behaviour, 5, pp.169-87, reprinted in Brainstorms, 1978. 3. For more on the relationship between luck and talent (and free will and responsibility), see my Elbow Room: The Varieties of Free Will Worth Wanting, 1984. 4.R. Dawkins, 1976, The Selfish Gene, Oxford Univ. Press. See also my discussions of the concept in Memes and the Exploitation of the Imagination, Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 1990, 48, pp. 127-35. and in my book, Consciousness Explained, 1991. 5.This idea is defended in chapters 7 and 8 of Consciousness Explained. 6.See my review of Newell, forthcoming in Artificial Intelligence, special issue devoted to Newells book. 7. Cf. Dennett, 1991, Mother Nature versus the Walking Encyclopedia, in W. Ramsey, S. Stich, and D. Rumelhart, eds., Philosophy and Connectionist Theory, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 8. Such belief-like states are what I have called opinions (in Brainstorms, ch. 16.)9.In Consciousness Explained, I deliberately made upas an implausible but possible fictiona case of temporary total aphasia: there is an herb an overdose of which makes you incapable of understanding spoken sentences in your native language . . , adding that for all I knew, it might be fact, not fiction (p.69). If Brother Johns epilepsy could be brought on by an overdose of an herb, the case would be completeif Brother Johns case is the fact it seems to be. A review of the original report (Roche Lecours and Joanette, 1980) leaves unanswered questions, but no grounds for dismissal that I could detect.